Boneparte biography

The pope was not released until In February , the National Convention proclaimed religious equality for France's Protestant churches and other religions. In April , Napoleon published laws increasing state control of Calvinist congregations and Lutheran directories, with their pastors to be paid by the state. The Jews of France had been granted full civil rights in September and religious equality in The revolutionary and Napoleonic regimes abolished Jewish ghettoes in the territories they conquered.

In , he summoned a Sanhedrin to adapt the law of Moses to those of the empire. An imperial decree of March organized Jewish worship into consistories, limited usury and encouraged Jews to adopt a family name, intermarriage, and civil marriage and divorce. Pieter Geyl wrote in , "It is impossible that two historians, especially two historians living in different periods, should see any historical personality in the same light.

He was an inspiring leader who could obtain the best from his soldiers and subordinates. There is debate over whether Napoleon was an outsider who never felt at home in France or with other people. He had the normal middle class virtues and understood the common man. Similarly, historians are divided over whether Napoleon was consistently ruthless when his power was threatened or surprisingly indulgent in some cases.

Those arguing for a ruthless personality point to episodes such as his violent suppression of revolts in France and conquered territories, [ ] his execution of the Duc d'Enghien and plotters against his rule, [ 10 ] [ ] and his massacre of Turkish prisoners of war in Syria in Many historians see Napoleon as pragmatic and a realist, at least in the early years of his rule.

Some historians talk of Napoleon's dual nature: a rationalist with a strong romantic streak. Napoleon was superstitious. He believed in omens , numerology, fate and lucky stars, and always asked of his generals: is he lucky? Various psychologists have attempted to explain Napoleon's personality. Alfred Adler cited Napoleon to describe an inferiority complex in which short people adopt over-aggressive behaviour to compensate for lack of height; this inspired the term Napoleon complex.

Parker speculated that rivalry with his older brother and bullying when he moved to France led him to develop an inferiority complex which made him domineering. In his youth, Bonaparte was consistently described as small and thin. Johann Ludwig Wurstemberger, who accompanied him in and , noted that "Bonaparte was rather slight and emaciated-looking; his face, too, was very thin, with a dark complexion English painter Joseph Farington , who met him in , said Bonaparte's eyes were "lighter, and more of a grey, than I should have expected from his complexion", that "his person is below middle size", and that "his general aspect was milder than I had before thought it.

In his later years Napoleon gained weight and had a sallow complexion. Novelist Paul de Kock, who saw him in , called Napoleon "yellow, obese, and bloated". During the Napoleonic Wars , the British press depicted Napoleon as a dangerous tyrant , poised to invade. A nursery rhyme warned children that he ate naughty people; the " bogeyman ". He is often portrayed wearing a large bicorne hat—sideways—with a hand-in-waistcoat gesture—a reference to the painting produced in by Jacques-Louis David.

Napoleon instituted numerous reforms, many of which had a lasting influence on France, Europe and the world. He reformed the French administration, codified French law, implemented a new education system, and established the first French central bank, the Banque de France. It was presented alongside the Organic Articles , which regulated public worship in France.

He also implemented civil and religious equality for Protestants and Jews. The order is still the highest decoration in France. Napoleon introduced a series of centralizing administrative reforms soon after taking power.

Boneparte biography

In , he established prefects appointed to run France's regional departments, sub-prefects to run districts and mayors to run towns. Local representative bodies were retained, but their powers were reduced and indirect elections with a high property qualification replaced direct elections. An enduring reform was the foundation, in December , of the Council of State , an advisory body of experts which could also draft laws for submission to the legislative body.

Napoleon drew many of his ministers and ambassadors from the council. It was the council which undertook the codification of French law. After several attempts by revolutionary governments, Napoleon officially introduced the metric system in France in and it was spread through western Europe by his armies. Napoleon's civil code of laws , known from as the Napoleonic Code, was implemented in March Napoleon participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts.

The code introduced a clearly written and accessible set of national laws to replace the various regional and customary law systems that had operated in France. The civil code entrenched the principles of equality before the law, religious toleration, secure property rights, equal inheritance for all legitimate children, and the abolition of the vestiges of feudalism.

However, it also reduced the rights of women and children and severely restricted the grounds for divorce. A criminal code was promulgated in , and eventually seven codes of law were produced under Napoleon. Alfred Cobban described it as, "the most effective agency for the propagation of the basic principles of the French Revolution. In the field of military organization , Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert , and from the reforms of preceding French governments, and then developed what was already in place.

He continued the Revolutionary policies of conscription and promotion based primarily on merit. Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid, and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare.

Napoleon was regarded by the influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as a genius in the art of war, and many historians rank him as a great military commander. Napoleon was an aggressive commander with a preference for the offensive. Wars became more costly and decisive as invasions of enemy territory occurred on larger fronts. The political cost of war also increased, as defeat for a European power now meant more than just losing isolated territories.

Peace terms were often punitive, sometimes involving regime change, which intensified the trend towards total war since the Revolutionary era. Napoleon's educational reforms laid the foundation of a modern system of secondary and tertiary education in France and throughout much of Europe. He also founded the military academy of Saint Cyr.

In , he founded the Imperial University, a supervisory body with control over curriculum and discipline. The following year he introduced the baccalaureate. It outperformed its European counterparts, many of which borrowed from the French system. Female education, in contrast, was designed to be practical and religious, based on home science, the catechism, basic literacy and numeracy, and enough science to eradicate superstition.

In May , Bonaparte created the Legion of Honour whose members would be military personnel and civilians with distinguished service to the state. The new institution was unpopular with republicans and the measure only passed by 14 votes to 10 in the Council of State. In August , Napoleon created an hereditary imperial nobility including princes, dukes, counts, barons and knights.

Eventually the empire had over 3, nobles and more than 30, members of the Legion of Honour. There is debate over whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe" or "a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler". Bell and McLynn condemn his killing of 3,—5, Turkish prisoners of war in Syria.

A number of historians have argued that his expansionist foreign policy was a major factor in the Napoleonic wars, [ ] [ ] which cost six million lives and caused economic disruption for a generation. Conner argue that Napoleon had insufficient regard for the lives of his soldiers and that his battle tactics led to excessive casualties. Critics also cite Napoleon's exploitation of conquered territories.

Many historians have criticized Napoleon's authoritarian rule, especially after , which included censorship, the closure of independent newspapers, the bypassing of direct elections and representative government, the dismissal of judges showing independence, and the exile of critics of the regime. Napoleon's use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity.

Strict censorship and control of the press , books, theatre, and art were part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing peace and stability to France. Propaganda focused on his role first as a general then as a civil leader and emperor. He fostered a relationship with artists, commissioning and controlling different forms of art to suit his propaganda goals.

Napoleonic propaganda survived his exile to Saint Helena. The Napoleonic legend played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in — People from different walks of life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the Revolution.

There were also subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon's life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations. Bell sees the return of Napoleon's remains to France in as an attempt by Louis-Phillipe to prop up his unpopular regime by associating it with Napoleon, and that the regime of Napoleon III was only possible due to the continued resonance of the Napoleonic legend.

Venita Datta argues that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. In the 21st century, Napoleon appears regularly in popular fiction, drama and advertising. Napoleon and his era remain major topics of historical research with a sharp increase in historical books, articles and symposia during the bicentenary years of to Napoleon was responsible for spreading many of the values of the French Revolution to other countries, especially through the Napoleonic Code.

Napoleon's regime abolished remnants of feudalism in the lands he conquered and in his satellite states. He liberalized property laws , ended manorialism , abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalized divorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and ended the Spanish Inquisition. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and equality before the law was proclaimed for all men.

Napoleon reorganized what had been the Holy Roman Empire , made up of about three hundred Kleinstaaterei , into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of the Rhine ; this helped promote the German Confederation and the unification of Germany in , as it sparked a new wave of German nationalism that opposed the French intervention. The movement toward Italian unification was similarly sparked by Napoleonic rule.

The Napoleonic invasion of Spain and ousting of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy had a significant effect on Spanish America. Many local elites sought to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain , whom they considered the legitimate monarch. Such leaders embraced nationalistic sentiments influenced by French nationalism and led successful independence movements in Latin America.

Napoleon's reputation is generally favourable in Poland, which is the only country in the world to evoke him in its national anthem, Poland Is Not Yet Lost. When Napoleon abdicated in he named his son his successor as "Napoleon II", but the allies refused to recognize him. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in and died of tuberculosis aged 21, with no children.

On becoming emperor, Napoleon adopted the French Imperial Eagle as his arms. Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read View source View history. Tools Tools. Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item. Emperor of the French r. For other uses, see Napoleon disambiguation and Napoleon Bonaparte disambiguation.

Les Invalides , Paris. Marie Louise of Austria. Battles of Napoleon. Main article: Siege of Toulon Main article: Italian Campaign of Main article: French campaign in Egypt and Syria. Main article: Napoleonic era. Main article: 18 Brumaire. Temporary peace in Europe. See also: Haitian Revolution. Main article: First French Empire. Bonaparte becomes Napoleon I.

War of the Third Coalition. Main article: War of the Third Coalition. Main articles: Franco-Ottoman alliance and Franco-Persian alliance. War of the Fourth Coalition and Tilsit. Main article: War of the Fourth Coalition. Peninsular War and Erfurt. Main article: Peninsular War. War of the Fifth Coalition. Main article: War of the Fifth Coalition. Consolidation of the Empire.

French Empire. French satellite states. Main article: French invasion of Russia. War of the Sixth Coalition. Main article: War of the Sixth Coalition. Main article: Principality of Elba. Main article: Hundred Days. Exile on Saint Helena. Main article: Napoleon I's exile to St. United Kingdom legislation. Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Further information: Napoleon and the Catholic Church. Further information: Concordat of Further information: Napoleon and the Jews and Napoleon and Protestants. Further information: Cultural depictions of Napoleon and Uniforms of Napoleon. Main article: Napoleonic Code. Further information: Napoleonic weaponry and warfare and Military career of Napoleon.

Main article: Legacy of Napoleon. Main articles: Napoleonic propaganda and Bonapartism. Bonaparte Crossing the Alps , realist version by Paul Delaroche in Moscow Long-term influence outside France. Main article: Influence of the French Revolution. French Directory. Cisalpine Directory. Helvetic Assembly. Swiss Restoration. See also: Armorial of the First French Empire.

Imperial Arms of Napoleon. He is less realistically portrayed on a charger in the latter work. The final signed version explicitly refers to "Napoleon II" as his successor. ISBN Archived from the original on 2 December Retrieved 2 December The Spanish Inquisition: A History. Yale University Press. Archived from the original on 20 April Retrieved 5 April Archived from the original on 28 November Pearson Education Limited.

Archived from the original on 22 August Archived from the original on 27 February Retrieved 15 October French Historical Studies. ISSN JSTOR Archived from the original on 25 February Napoleon: A Biographical Companion. Empress Josephine. New York: Harvard University Press. OCLC The French Revolution, In McPhee, Peter ed. A Companion to the French Revolution.

Retrieved 18 October Archived from the original on 29 July Retrieved 11 July Harvard University Press. Leggiere University of Oklahoma Press. Archived from the original on 18 November How Far From Austerlitz? Napoleon — Pan Macmillan. In Planert, Ute ed. Napoleon's Empire. He paved the way for a very impressive modern European Empire. In doing so, he swept away much of the old feudal systems and customs of Europe.

Napoleon helped to usher in a new era of European politics. He established a Napoleonic code of religious tolerance, rational values and a degree of liberalism. Yet, he was a man of paradoxes: his naked ambition led to costly wars with 6 million dead across Europe. His liberalism and tolerance were imposed with ruthless efficiency and conquest of foreign lands.

Eventually, his ambition outreached his ability, leading to his humiliation in the severe Russian winter and later against the British at Waterloo. Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. Napoleon: A Biography at Amazon. In , Russia withdrew from the Continental System. In retaliation, Napoleon led a massive army into Russia in the summer of In September, both sides suffered heavy casualties in the indecisive Battle of Borodino.

Retreating Russians set fires across the city in an effort to deprive enemy troops of supplies. After waiting a month for a surrender that never came, Napoleon, faced with the onset of the Russian winter, was forced to order his starving, exhausted army out of Moscow. During the disastrous retreat, his army suffered continual harassment from a suddenly aggressive and merciless Russian army.

At the same time as the catastrophic Russian invasion, French forces were engaged in the Peninsular War , which resulted in the Spanish and Portuguese, with assistance from the British, driving the French from the Iberian Peninsula. Napoleon then retreated to France, and in March coalition forces captured Paris. On April 6, , Napoleon, then in his mids, was forced to abdicate the throne.

With the Treaty of Fontainebleau, he was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. He was given sovereignty over the small island, while his wife and son went to Austria. Explore the extraordinary life and times of Napoleon Bonaparte, the great military genius who took France to unprecedented heights of power, and then brought it to its knees when his ego spun out of control.

On February 26, , after less than a year in exile, Napoleon escaped Elba and sailed to the French mainland with a group of more than 1, supporters. On March 20, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed by cheering crowds. Napoleon raised a new army and planned to strike preemptively, defeating the allied forces one by one before they could launch a united attack against him.

In June , his forces invaded Belgium, where British and Prussian troops were stationed. However, two days later, on June 18, at the Battle of Waterloo near Brussels, the French were crushed by the British, with assistance from the Prussians. His military acumen became evident in when he defended the revolutionary government of the Directory from royalist forces attempting a coup, earning him recognition and command of the Army of the Interior.

This pivotal moment solidified his status and opened the door to greater military responsibilities, allowing him to lead the Army of Italy, where he orchestrated significant victories that expanded French territorial holdings and showcased his tactical brilliance. Under Napoleon's command, the Army of Italy transformed from a demoralized and poorly supplied unit into a formidable force.

His keen strategic mind and charismatic leadership led to a series of victories against Austrian forces, enhancing his reputation and consolidating his power within France. By , he sought to disrupt British trade by invading Egypt; despite a significant early setback at the Battle of the Nile, he returned to France with his reputation largely intact.

His ability to inspire troops and rally public support marked him as one of the most effective and trusted military leaders of his era, laying the groundwork for his eventual rise to the role of Emperor of France. Napoleon Bonaparte's personal life was as complex and tumultuous as his military career. His first wife, Josephine de Beauharnais, was a widow with two children when they met at a social gathering in Despite their initial differences—Josephine found Napoleon to be "altogether strange"—they married on March 9, Their relationship was characterized by passion and drama, often hindered by Napoleon's frequent military campaigns.

While he expressed his love for Josephine through letters, both engaged in extramarital affairs. Ultimately, the marriage faced pressure due to Josephine's inability to bear an heir, leading to Napoleon's decision to annul their union in December Following his divorce from Josephine, Napoleon quickly sought a new bride to secure a legitimate successor.

His choice fell upon Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, a strategic match given that she was the great-niece of Marie Antoinette. They married by proxy in March , and their union produced a son, Napoleon II, born on March 20, Despite the political motivations behind the marriage, Marie-Louise's experience was fraught with resentment, as she initially viewed Napoleon as a potential tormentor.

Napoleon Bonaparte's personal life was as dynamic as his political and military career.